"Linux Gazette...making Linux just a little more fun!"

This article will now explain how to setup the bootup process for Linux so that single-user mode really works if you are using the Slackware 3.2 distribution (or a derivative). I will begin by assuming that your kernel is correctly configured and that the init program starts successfully. See the Installation-HOWTO at ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/docs/HOWTO/Installation-HOWTO for help to get this far. Once you have a system that boots, however, you have only begun. Why? Most distributions will give you a generic set of initialization scripts that are designed to work for an average installation. You will want to customize this in order to run extra things you want and/or to prevent running things you do not want. With the dozen or so standard startup scripts things can seem confusing, but after you read this article you should be able to understand enough to create a custom environment when you boot that exactly suits you.

As I stated earlier, I will begin by assuming that init has started successfully. It will examine the file /etc/inittab to determine what to do. In that file are located the lines to activate your login devices such as terminals, modems, and your virtual consoles. Leave that stuff alone. What we are interested in are the lines which call the startup/shutdown scripts. These lines will look something like this:

# Default runlevel.
id:3:initdefault:

# System initialization (runs when system boots).
si::sysinit:/etc/rc.d/rc.S

# Script to run when going single user (runlevel 1).
l1:1:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.K

# Script to run when going single user (runlevel S or s)
mm:S:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.K2

# Script to run when going multi user.
rc:23456:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.M

# Runlevel 0 halts the system.
l0:0:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.0

# Runlevel 6 reboots the system.
l6:6:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.6

The comments are present and are very helpful. First you need to determine your default runlevel. In this case it is 3. The format of the /etc/inittab file section we are looking at is simple. Blank lines are ignored. Lines with '#' as the first character are comments and are ignored. Other lines have 4 parts separated by the colon character. These parts are 1. symbolic label, 2. runlevel, 3. action and 4.command to run. These are documented in the section 5 manual page for /etc/inittab (man 5 inittab). First we must find a line with an action of initdefault, and then see what runlevel it has. That will be the default runlevel. Obviously you should not have 2 lines that have initdefault as the action in an /etc/inittab file. Once you know the default runlevel, you will be able to know what /etc/inittab entries will be processed by init. The 1 runlevel is considered single-user maintenance mode, but it supported multiple simultaneous logins in virtual terminals with the default /etc/inittab on my systems. You can prevent this by removing the 1 from the getty lines of the tty2, tty3, tty4, etc. The 3 runlevel is considered the normal multi-user mode with full networking support. The S runlevel is supposed to be true single-user, and you can theoretically enter that runlevel using the lilo parameter single. However, for the Slackware 3.2 distribution, that does not put you in a single-user mode as you would expect, but instead you wind up in runlevel 3. The /etc/inittab file I show here does not have that problem however. Once you have read this article you can change the system to behave in the expected manner. So we know we will go to runlevel 3. That means init will perform every command in the /etc/inittab file that has a sysinit, then boot, or bootwait, and finally any entries for our runlevel 3. When you want to run a script when entering a runlevel, it doesn't make sense to have more than one script line in the /etc/inittab file for that level. Instead, you should put everything in 1 script, or call scripts from within the script mentioned in the /etc/inittab file using the dot method. Once thing to note is that field 2, the runlevel field, can have more than 1 runlevel specified. The init program will first run the si entry (and we will wait for it to finish running /etc/rc.d/rc.S) since it has sysinit (which implies wait) in the third field. Then it will run everything with 3 specified. So in our example file we will run the si target, then the rc target (and we will wait for it to finish running the /etc/rc.d/rc.M script since the third field is wait), and finally we it will do the c1 through c6 targets which set up the virtual ttys during a normal boot.

If we boot (via lilo) and add the single parameter, we will still run the si target (/etc/rc.d/rc.S) and wait for it to complete, but then we will run the mm target (/etc/rc.d/rc.K2). Keep in mind that runlevel 1 and runlevel S are essentially the same when you enter them, but how you get there is very different. Runlevel 1 can be entered by using the command /sbin/telinit 1, but /sbin/telinit s will send you to runlevel 5 often for some reason (some kind of bug). Runlevel 1 will give you a normal log in, and allows 1 user (any 1 user) to log in at the console. With this setup, runlevel S will give you a special root-only login that allows only root to use the console. Since only root can log in, only a special password prompt is displayed. If you press enter or ctl-D, the system will return to runlevel 3. This root-only login is accomplished by using the /bin/sulogin program. Runlevel S is probably what you want when you think single-user, but you have to reboot the machine and use lilo and have the single parameter to make it work. You can use runlevel 1 to accomplish the same things, but remember you will have to manually return to runlevel 3 when you are done with another call to /sbin/telinit 3 or a reboot, and you must insure that nobody else can get to the console but the root user. WARNING: The true single-user mode entered with the single parameter to lilo with my /etc/inittab and /etc/rc.d/rc.K2 will support only 1 console and no other virtual terminals. Do not run anything that locks up the terminal!

Ok, so what do we know now? We know what scripts init will call and when they will be called. But what can be in those scripts? The scripts should be written for bash unless you are a real guru and KNOW the other shell you wrote scripts for will be available during boot. There is nothing preventing you from using perl or tcsh or whatever, but traditionally most everyone uses bash scripts (ok, ok, Bourne shell scripts) for unix boot scripts. The /etc/rc.d/rc.S script which is called at system boot time should take care of things like fsck'ing your file systems, mounting them, and starting up swapping and other essential daemons. These are things that you need independent of runlevel. The /etc/rc.d/rc.M script which is called when you enter runlevel 3 should start all the processes that remain that you usually need during normal system operation EXCEPT things like getty. Processes that must be restarted whenever they stop running like getty should be placed in the /etc/inittab file instead of being started by a boot script. So what is in a typical /etc/rc.d/rc.M script? Usually configuring the network , starting web servers, sendmail, and anything else you want to always run like database servers, quota programs, etc.

The only startup script I mention in my /etc/inittab that is not included in the Slackware 3.2 distribution is /etc/rc.d/rc.K2, and it is merely a modified version of /etc/rc.d/rc.K set up for single user mode. Remember this is the startup script that will be used if you choose to enter the single parameter to lilo. At the end of this file you will see a line:

exec /bin/sulogin /dev/console

This will replace the current process which is running the script with the /bin/sulogin program. This means, of course, that this has to be the last line in your script, since nothing after this line will be processed by bash. After that program starts, it displays a message to either enter the root password or press ctl-D. If you enter the correct root password, you will be logged in as root in a true single-user mode. Be careful, though, because when you exit that shell the machine will go into runlevel 3. If you want to reboot before entering runlevel 3 you must remember to do it (via shutdown) instead of just exiting the shell. If you press ctl-D instead of the root password, the system will enter runlevel 3. I have changed the incorrect calls to kill to use the killall5 program, since the lines with kill caused init to be killed and a runlevel change was happening incorrectly.

Well, I hope that this description of how I enabled my Linux machine to have a single-user mode similar to that of the big-name workstations proves helpful to you. Customizing your boot process is not too hard, once you understand something about how the /etc/inittab and /etc/rc.d/* scripts work. Be sure you 1. backup your entire system, 2. have a boot floppy, and 3. a rescue floppy that can restore the backup (or any individual files) you made in step 1 using the boot floppy from step 2 to boot the machine. If you make a 1 character typo you can prevent the machine from booting, so the backup steps, while tedious, are really necessary to protect yourself before you experiment.

Here are the files I used. Use at your own risk. They work for me, but may need to be modified to work for you.

#
# inittab       This file describes how the INIT process should set up
#               the system in a certain run-level.
#
# Version:      @(#)inittab             2.04    17/05/93        MvS
#                                       2.10    02/10/95        PV
#
# Author:       Miquel van Smoorenburg, 
# Modified by:  Patrick J. Volkerding, 
# Modified by:  John Gatewood Ham, 
#
# Default runlevel.
id:3:initdefault:

# System initialization (runs when system boots).
si::sysinit:/etc/rc.d/rc.S

# Script to run when going maintenance mode (runlevel 1).
l1:1:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.K

# Script to run when going single user (runlevel s)
mm:S:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.K2

# Script to run when going multi user.
rc:23456:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.M

# What to do at the "Three Finger Salute".
# make the machine halt on ctl-alt-del
ca::ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown -h now "going down on ctl-alt-del"

# Runlevel 0 halts the system.
l0:0:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.0

# Runlevel 6 reboots the system.
l6:6:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.6

# What to do when power fails (shutdown to single user).
pf::powerfail:/sbin/shutdown -f +5 "THE POWER IS FAILING"

# If power is back before shutdown, cancel the running shutdown.
pg:0123456:powerokwait:/sbin/shutdown -c "THE POWER IS BACK"

# If power comes back in single user mode, return to multi user mode.
ps:S:powerokwait:/sbin/init 5

# The getties in multi user mode on consoles an serial lines.
#
# NOTE NOTE NOTE adjust this to your getty or you will not be
#                able to login !!
#
# Note: for 'agetty' you use linespeed, line.
# for 'getty_ps' you use line, linespeed and also use 'gettydefs'
# we really don't want multiple logins in single user mode...
c1:12345:respawn:/sbin/agetty 38400 tty1 linux
c2:235:respawn:/sbin/agetty 38400 tty2 linux
c3:235:respawn:/sbin/agetty 38400 tty3 linux
c4:235:respawn:/sbin/agetty 38400 tty4 linux
c5:235:respawn:/sbin/agetty 38400 tty5 linux
c6:235:respawn:/sbin/agetty 38400 tty6 linux

# Serial lines
#s1:12345:respawn:/sbin/agetty 19200 ttyS0 vt100
#s2:12345:respawn:/sbin/agetty 19200 ttyS1 vt100

# Dialup lines
#d1:12345:respawn:/sbin/agetty -mt60 38400,19200,9600,2400,1200 ttyS0 vt100
#d2:12345:respawn:/sbin/agetty -mt60 38400,19200,9600,2400,1200 ttyS1 vt100

# Runlevel 4 used to be for an X-window only system, until we discovered
# that it throws init into a loop that keeps your load avg at least 1 all 
# the time. Thus, there is now one getty opened on tty1. Hopefully no one
# will notice. ;^)
# It might not be bad to have one text console anyway, in case something 
# happens to X.
x1:4:wait:/etc/rc.d/rc.4

# End of /etc/inittab

# /bin/sh
#
# rc.K          This file is executed by init when it goes into runlevel
#               1, which is the administrative state. It kills all
#               deamons and then puts the system into single user mode.
#               Note that the file systems are kept mounted.
#
# Version:      @(#)/etc/rc.d/rc.K      1.50    1994-01-18
# Version:      @(#)/etc/rc.d/rc.K      1.60    1995-10-02 (PV)
#
# Author:       Miquel van Smoorenburg 
# Modified by:  Patrick J. Volkerding 
# Modified by:  John Gatewood Ham 
#
  # Set the path.
  PATH=/sbin:/etc:/bin:/usr/bin

  # Kill all processes.
  echo
  echo "Sending all processes the TERM signal."
  killall5 -15
  echo -n "Waiting for processes to terminate"
  for loop in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ; do
    sleep 1
    echo -n "."
  done
  echo
  echo "Sending all processes the KILL signal."
  killall5 -9

  # Try to turn off quota and accounting.
  if [ -x /usr/sbin/quotaoff ]
  then
        echo "Turning off quota.."
        /usr/sbin/quotaoff -a
  fi
  if [ -x /sbin/accton ]
  then
        echo "Turning off accounting.."
        /sbin/accton
  fi

# /bin/sh
#
# rc.K          This file is executed by init when it goes into runlevel
#               1, which is the administrative state. It kills all
#               deamons and then puts the system into single user mode.
#               Note that the file systems are kept mounted.
#
# Version:      @(#)/etc/rc.d/rc.K      1.50    1994-01-18
# Version:      @(#)/etc/rc.d/rc.K      1.60    1995-10-02 (PV)
#
# Author:       Miquel van Smoorenburg 
# Modified by:  Patrick J. Volkerding 
# Modified by:  John Gatewood Ham 
#
# Set the path.
PATH=/sbin:/etc:/bin:/usr/bin

# Kill all processes.
echo
echo "Sending all processes the TERM signal."
killall5 -15
echo -n "Waiting for processes to terminate"
for loop in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ; do
  sleep 1
  echo -n "."
done
echo
echo "Sending all processes the KILL signal."
killall5 -9

# Try to turn off quota and accounting.
if [ -x /usr/sbin/quotaoff ]
then
        echo "Turning off quota.."
        /usr/sbin/quotaoff -a
fi
if [ -x /sbin/accton ]
then
        echo "Turning off accounting.."
        /sbin/accton
fi

# Now go to the single user level
exec /bin/sulogin /dev/console